Access to Medicines in Developing Countries Essay Example for Free

Access to Medicines in Developing Countries Essay One of the appalling statistics that came out of a survey in 2000 was the percentage of the HIV/AIDS infections in Africa. It was reported that nearly 80% of the total number of affected people was from this continent. Now if this report sounds dreadful, one might get a bigger shock by looking at the picture of modern healthcare methodologies in Africa. Despite being a developing nation, Africa gets scarcely one percent of modern drugs. The value of all medical drugs transported to Africa amounts to the expenses spent on advertising by the leading pharmaceutical companies in the United States of America. Under the light of this reality, this paper is going to discuss the genuine scenario in developing countries that don’t have an affordable access to life-saving medicines. It might be noted that access to medicines is a fundamental human right, and there is a yawning gap between crisis and cure in a capitalistic social setup. Due to increased political pressure, many drug manufacturing companies have been forced to review their business strategies and produce medicines that are relatively less expensive. Moreover, it is also mandatory to formulate a well-organized delivery system that would ensure a proper and timely delivery of the medicinal goods to Africa and other Third World countries. Modern healthcare remedies are needed to be deployed in order to combat the menace of HIV and other diseases in the underprivileged tropics. (â€Å"Access to Medicine in Developing Countries†, 2000) Access to medicine in developing countries has always been a matter of great disputation, mainly because of the convoluted interaction between macroeconomic development, patterns of diseases and healthcare requirements and provisions. It has been an inescapable paradox for many countries where the national economic status can only be attained by improved health status. Hence, lack of supply of life-saving drugs hinders the scope and opportunity of national healthcare. (â€Å"Improving Access to Medicines in Developing Countries†, 2005) The impoverished countries find it a mammoth task to meet both ends successfully. It has been proposed that only a large scale international funding can inject some fruitful results in the context of healthcare and economic boost. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) are working together to provide the best possible framework for improved health status as well as the macroeconomic development of developing nations. WTO is primarily concerned with the organized growth of a capitalist, free market global economy. On the other hand, WHO is focused on improving health conditions by providing healthcare models that can be applied to both developed as well as developing nations. Institutional and public sector frameworks play a crucial role in realizing the objectives of WHO to the best possible extent. The newly incepted Global Health Fund is working relentlessly to provide remedies for HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria. The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS agreement) are held, in some cases, as obstacles for access to essential medicines in developing countries. Ever since WTO finalized the TRIPS agreement in April 1994, this issue has been a matter of great debate. The main problems in accessing medicines, as viewed by experts, are the increasing expenses, which can shoot up to 66% of total expenditure in developing nations. Today’s scenario as far as having access to essential medicines is concerned is an alarming one, with more than one-third of the world’s population are deprived of indispensable drugs. According to the WHO, developing countries, especially those in Asia and Africa, must be provided with an all-encompassing solution in terms of health priority problems, and they must be able to gain access to life-saving medicines at an affordable deal. To make matters worse, the poorer section of societies in developing countries find themselves all at sea due to their inability to physically access life-saving drugs. So both availability and affordability are the key areas of concern. Now under these circumstances, the introduction of strong and worldwide product patents for drugs, as implemented through the TRIPS agreement, may cause drastic increase in prices for essential medicines. The ‘legal monopoly’ that comes with such rigid patent system prevents anybody from producing, selling or distributing medicines in an unauthorized manner. Even if there is no patent laws, access to medicines is going to be a problem for the developing countries, due to adequate purchasing capabilities and required infrastructure. Majority of the medicines for HIV/AIDS are still under ‘live’ patent coverage. It doesn’t make for affordable access to such medicines either. And since more than 95% of HIV/AIDS affected people are from developing countries, and 50% of them belong to the productive age group of below 25 years, serious socio-economic consequences are perceived with very little signs of relief. Before TRIPS were put to effect, most developing countries and some developed countries did not impose patent laws on medicines even if they were manufactured with innovative technological aids. But today, most of these nations being WTO members have to enforce the patent laws laid down by TRIPS. This has led to hike in prices of patented medicines. It is worth noticing that even under the TRIPS guidelines, patents are to be given only on applications received from 1995 onwards for new therapeutic inventions. So any medicine manufactured before 1995 should not be unaffordable for the developing nations. Manufacturers of the newer and more innovative pharmaceutical products file for patents only in countries where business of piracy runs rampant. Parallel import of drugs is another important issue that came into consideration after the TRIPS agreement. The Intellectual Property Rights owners of specific brands of medicines face problems when goods, legally distributed in the market of one country, are imported to another without the necessary legal authorization. Now, as long as there is no discrepancy in Intellectual Property Rights in two different countries, article 6 of TRIPS defends parallel import. But considering the economic side of such imports, it might be noted that price of the same medicine in one country may rise or fall to a great extent in another. So developing countries, without violating the Intellectual Property Rights protection, may find a way out to access essential but expensive drugs from its neighboring countries. (Watal, J. 2000) In addition to what is discussed above, one must bear in mind the supply side process concerning manufacture and distribution of medicines. The specific issue related to accessibility to medicines is directly linked with the development and implementation of more efficient and cost-effective measures in manufacturing and distributing drugs. A number of speculative theories and ideologies have been put forward to address the issue of maximizing the available resources to achieve a standardized health status around the globe. However, the aim of this paper is not to get into a particular ideological standpoint, or to promote distinct solutions, but to gain a deeper insight into the real constraints of manufacturing and distributive activities. One has to take into account the diverse theoretical concepts, the macroeconomic environment of international economics and technological nuances of the pharmaceutical sectors. Once we identify the constraints, it will be easier to suggest feasible solutions in terms of easy and regular access to medicines for the developing countries. The policies adopted by pharmaceutical companies are worth taking a look at.

The Ethical Dilemmas That Social Workers Face Social Work Essay

The Ethical Dilemmas That Social Workers Face Social Work Essay This essay will look at how social workers address ethical dilemmas in their work with service users and carers. This will be evidenced in case examples illustrating how the codes of practice and codes of ethics guide social work decisions while making them accountable for their work. When working with ethical dilemmas social workers have to understand the origins of these values and codes. Taking into account their own personal values and being aware of how these could influence their decisions. Values and ethics are one of the most important characteristic of an individual the fundamentals define who we are and what we believe (Banks, 2001). Whether individuals are consciously aware of them or not, every individual has a core set of values and ethics. Values are socially constructed moral codes that guide and control our actions within the social world (IFSW). Values and ethics start to develop from birth and are mainly developed by major influences in an individual life. Factors of culture, religion and many more affect our beliefs and ethics. According to Banks (2001, p.6) values are particular types of belief that people hold about what is regarded as worthy or valuable, values determine what a person thinks he ought to do. Social work values are based on the principal of respect for persons which comes from the Deontological approach of German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). From these writings Biestek a Catholic priest developed seven principles for effective practice. Kantian principles are individualisation, purposeful expression of feelings, controlled emotional involvement, acceptance, non-judgemental attitude, service user self-determination and confidentiality (Shardlow, 2002). Although Kantianism is primarily focused on the sense of peoples duty, critics have argued that the perspective gives no allowance for compassion and sympathy to motivate peoples actions. Furthermore, Kantian has a lack of guidelines when dealing with conflicting requirements. Kants moral philosophy has been influential in the values and ethics of social work, in particular respect for people and self- determination. These philosophical underpinnings are a major influence in the social care profession. On the other hand Utilitarianism believes that action is right if it generates, or tends to generate the best possible outcome for the majority of people that are affected by that action. Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism where the rightness of an action is determined by its consequences. There are three main types of utilitarianism act, rule and preference. Act takes into account the individual circumstances, maintaining that the action is good if it generates the best possible outcome in a particular situation. Rule is concerned with the amount of good that a moral action produces, conforming to a rule or law. The rule or law is correct and is determined by the amount of good that is generated when the rule is followed. Preference is one of the more popular forms of utilitarianism it takes into account peoples preferences. The moral action is right if it produces a satisfaction of each persons individual desires or preference (Banks,2001). All of these are open to interpretation and will mean different things to different people, which is why social work codes should be referred to. Social work codes set out an expected code of conduct that social workers have to comply with in order to gain the trust of the public so that service users are informed of what they can expect from their social workers. Protect the rights and promote the interests of service users and carers the codes are as follows: Strive to establish and maintain the trust and confidence of service users and carers, Promote the independence of service users while protecting them as far as possible from danger or harm, Respect the rights of service users whilst seeking to ensure that their behaviour does not harm themselves or other people, Uphold public trust and confidence in social care services, Be accountable for the quality of our work and take responsibility for maintaining and improving our knowledge and skills. The COP form part of the wider package of legislation, practice standards and employers policies that social care workers must meet. When codes are not adhered to there can be serious repercussions involved for all (CCW, 2002). Social works professional values, as described in the British Association of Social Workers (BASW) code of ethics (COE), including respect for all persons including service users beliefs values, culture, goals, needs and preferences, relationships and affiliations, and a commitment to social justice, including the fair and equitable distribution of resources to meet basic needs.(BASW, 2002, 3.1, 3.2). These are a set of moral principles used to set standards which regulates the social work profession. These offer a general guidance and as yet carry no sanctions if broken (Shardlow, 2002). An ethical code also contributes to the strengthening of professional identity. They add clarity to the tasks and should lead to greater ethical observance within the organisation, but the primary objective of the COE is the protection of the clients (Banks, 2001). Ethics are generally distinguished in three different ways by philosophy, meta-ethics, normative ethics and descriptive ethics. Meta-ethics seeks to understand the nature of morality, moral judgements and moral terms such as good, bad and duty. Normative ethics endeavours to answer moral questions, such as what is the right action to take in a particular situation or what is the right direction to take? Descriptive ethics examines how individuals moral opinions and beliefs reflect their behaviour and attitudes towards it (Bowles, 2006). A good social worker needs to be aware of the societal and professional values underlying his or her work so as to empower individuals, families and communities. Both Anti-oppressive practice and values are embodied in the BASW code of ethics (BASW, 2012). Parrott (2006) describes Anti-oppressive practice (AOP) as a general value orientation towards countering oppression experienced by service users on such grounds as race, gender and culture. AOP are also values of working in partnership and empowerment. It is also a way of linking our lived experience with the categories of the relations of ruling (Parrot, 2006). While Thompson (2001) saw oppression as an inhuman or degrading treatment of individuals or groups; in hardship and in justice brought about by the dominance of one group over another; the negative and demeaning exercise of power. Oppression often involves disregarding the rights of an individual or group and this is a denial of citizenship. Social work is often seen as the caring profession who work with service users who need help. Every service user is unique and very social worker is an individual who uses their own lived experiences and to be an effective helper needs insight into her own formation with its potentials for strength and weakness (Clark, 2011). At the core of this is what service users expect of social workers a relationship that is built on trust, being open and honest with each other and achieved by communicating in a clear way that service users understand (Care Council for Wales, 2002, 2.1 2.2) as well as committed, reliable and punctual. Social workers rely on traditional values of confidentiality, acceptance and user self-determination while being non-judgemental in order to gain the trust of service users. These core values are not unique to social work but shared with other caring professions in medicine, nursing and counselling (Banks, 1995). Values have a variety of meanings referring to one or all of moral, political or ideological principles, religious, beliefs or attitudes. However the social work context uses values to mean a set of fundamental moral/ethical principles by which social workers show commitment. While moral judgements promote the satisfaction of human needs and happiness and apply to all people in similar circumstances. On the other hand ethics refers to the study and analysis of right or wrong and good or bad in social work practice. Ethical dilemmas leave social workers using careful consideration to choose between two unwelcome alternatives relating to human welfare (Banks, 1995). Having choices does not make the decision any easier and social workers have to take responsibility and accountability for the outcomes of any decisions they make. Decisions are made by conducting investigations with both the legal and moral rights of all parties involved being taken into account. Societal values and norms are often reflected in laws, although there are some laws which we may regard as immoral the immigration laws being one. How we interpret the law is influenced by our values and ethical principles (Banks, 1995). Social work involves balancing the complexities between ones own moral integrity to the user, society and agency. The ability to analyse a situation and make the best decision is a critical skill which involves recognising our beliefs and behaviours and how they influence our ideas and actions. These values are derived from our culture and social norms and can change over time and across cultures. Therefore social workers need to maintain and improve their knowledge and skills in order to protect the learning and development of others (CCW, 2002, 6.8). Codes of practice(COP) guide and protect service users not be telling them what they can or cannot do but by establishing a professional identity for workers who agree to work in a trustworthy, honest, skilled and respectful manner (Bowles, 2006). However many believe that misuse of codes can be dangerous and cause unethical actions in particular in Western Australia in 1991 emergency foster care was sought for a 4 year-old girl while her mother was in hospital. The worker of a non-government agency placed the girl in an approved foster home which they frequently used. In the home was a 15 year old youth who was a ward of state who held a prior record for sexual offences against young children. The home also had another young foster child and a 4 year-old grandchild of the foster family. The social worker who approved the foster home for the youth and foster carers were unaware of the youths sex offending history. Although his history was known by the youths previous foster carers and 4 days after the girl was placed she died from being raped by the youth (Bowles, 2006, p.78). This illustrates the issues that arise when prioritising confidentiality over client safety and welfare when applied out of context. While the foster-carer is not a professional and does not have to abide by the COP she is guided by a moral code of ethics. Therefore confidentiality can be broken when it is considered the information puts either the client or others at harm. The foster-carer is a part of a team and a member of a child care agency so there would be employers policies and procedure that would have guided this ethical dilemma. Social workers have a responsibility to maintain the trust and confidence of service users and carers by respecting confidential information and explaining agency policies around confidentiality (CCW, 2002, 2.3). Postmodernist believe that there is no single truth and that ethics have no relevance in todays society, as they do not replicate the numerous realities of the same society, and ignore peoples individual perspectives and interpretation. Omitting cultural diversity and reinforcing the oppressive and dominant voices of the most powerful. Furthermore they are rarely used when making ethical decisions so they are considered irrelevant (Bowles, 2006). As in the above example there would have been a number of other professionals involved with the youth such as youth offending team and medical professionals so this is a prime example of lack of information sharing and poor communication as the new foster-carers should have been made aware of the issues on a need to know basis. Below are further examples of some of the ethical dilemmas that social workers face every day: An Asian woman with 5 children under the age of 6 years, who has fled a violent husband but still gets harasses by him. Has been locking up her children in the house and going out for help or a break. One of the workers on the Asian Womens Project she has recently joined to help with her feelings of isolation has discovered this. The worker has spoken with the woman explaining the risks and implications of her actions. However the woman has continued to leave the children unattended. The worker eventually informed social services as she felt the welfare of the children was paramount and she had repeatedly discussed the risks and implications of her behaviour including the British Laws and her responsibilities as a social care worker (CCW,2002, 3.2 3.8). The worker felt the dilemma was due to the view that generally social services and other agencies have often been insensitive the holistic wellbeing of the Asian women and fail to take into account their life experiences, religious a nd cultural background (Banks,2012.p.156). (BASW, 2002, 2.1,4, 2.2,5) A social worker who has been involved in admitting a woman to hospital for 28 days under the Mental Health Act starts to notice deterioration in her physical health. The woman then dies from pneumonia. The social worker felt that the deterioration in her physical health was due to the medication she received. Although at the time he felt unable to question the consultants and trusted that the hospital was the best place to pick up on any serious physical problems (BASW, 2002, 2.2,4). This is often attached to a hierarchy of power where the social worker felt the consultant was in a higher position and had more medical knowledge so was better equipped to make the decision. However in hindsight the social worker felt that he should have questioned the treatment before renewing the section for six months. While the social worker acted within the law and according to agency rules. Did he have a moral responsibility to question the diagnosis? (Banks, 1995, p.150). Also social workers shou ld maintain clear, impartial and accurate records and provision of evidence to support professional judgements. A young pregnant woman tells her community health counsellor that she will seek to have her child circumcised because a girl cannot be offered for marriage if she is not clean. The woman explains that she was also a subjected to Female genital mutilation (FGM) in her country of origin. The woman is aware that the practice is illegal and that she would have to go to a backyard operator in her community to have it done. While the counsellor is not a social worker she would still have to abide by the rules of confidentiality and this would have been explained to the woman at the beginning of the counselling sessions (CCW, 2002, 2.3 BASW,2.3,5). The counsellor should also explain the penalties for breaking the law including the law on child abuse. However it would be more beneficial to engage the young woman with others from her community who are endeavouring to break out of traditional roles who can provide her with support. Social workers have a duty to support service users rights to control their lives and make informed choices about the services they receive, whilst respecting diversity and their different cultures and values (CCW,2002, 1.3, 1.6). Furthermore social workers must promote the independence of the service user this is done by identifying and providing information and support enabling her to make informed choices. The social worker also has a responsibility to the unborn child. The social worker can prevent the harm to the mother by making her aware of the law regarding FGM which is illegal in this country, which is why no hospital will perform it. She also has to make her aware of the consequences of her actions that she could have her child removed or face imprisonment. The social worker can help prevent harm to the child by putting her mother into contact with others from the same community who could help support her make the right decision (CCW, 2002, 3). In modern day society social workers have to work as part of a multi-disciplinary team and at the core of this is information sharing so that everyone is responsible for the health and welfare of service users. As with any dilemmas guidance and support should be discussed with the social workers manager. While dealing with such ethical dilemmas social workers have to be aware of their own personal values and make sure that they do not influence the decisions that they make and while we may not always choose the options given for ourselves it does not mean that they are wrong (Bowles, 2006). The social work role is about empowering the user by providing the service user with the information, resources and support they need to make an informed choice and be prepared to accept the consequences. Many believe that ethical dilemmas in social work may be related to ideological issues. For example to what degree are the public society responsible for an individuals situation and how much responsibility should an individual take for their own situation. Social workers are often seen as agents of social control. This can lead to domineering and coercive practices where social workers dealing with marginalised groups or cultures can mistake their emotional reactions for firm moral truths (Bowles, 2006). While showing tolerance and doing nothing brings us back to the central tenents of ethical social work. As the above examples show the contents of the codes of practice are very general and therefore provide little help to social workers or service users when determining how social workers behave towards client. As in the above examples its does not provide the answer to Is it the social workers duty to inform the police if they discover that the service user has committed a crime? (Shardlow, 2002). The codes do however outline how social workers should work and interact with service users. Below is an example of when a social work student crossed these boundaries. A social work student is allocated to the case of two children siblings who live with their parents. The social worker has access to confidential information about the family which was given to her by the mother who herself is a vulnerable adult. During her placement the social work student meets the childrens father in a night club and starts a relationship with him. She even left the children stay at her home while the mother was in hospital. The social worker did not inform her employers of this relationship. The relationship with the father is compromising her judgement, and the relationship between service users and social workers is about meeting the needs of the client not their own needs. The codes of practice state that as a social worker, you must uphold public trust and confidence in social care services (CCW, 2002, 5). It goes on to state that you should not exploit service users in any way (CCW, 2002, 5.2), abuse their trust or the access you have to personal information (CCW, 2002, 5.3) or behave in a way, outside of work which would call into question your suitability to work in social care services (CCW, 2002, 5.8). In addition social workers must inform their employer or the appropriate authority about any personal difficulties that might affect their ability to do their job competently and safely. What are evident from the above examples are the complex issues that face social workers in their everyday practice. The core foundations of this work are values and ethics and while these can often conflict due to the variety of sources that social workers are accountable for instance the service user, carer and employer. The social worker must be prepared to explain and justify their actions and be open to scrutiny if they are to work in a professional manner (Clark, 2005). Values and ethics are a combination of thoughts and feelings which are used to weigh up the pros and cons of an argument and help make an ethical decision. However there needs to be distinctions on how to apply social work values and ethics into their professional work, without causing personal conflict. Above all the social worker must remain non-judgemental, and stay focused on the task ahead while upholding public trust in social care services.

Gender inequality in Education

Gender inequality in Education This report has been written because the main aim of this research project is to investigate if there is a gender gap between boys and girls achievement in schools. Whether the education system was biased to one gender? If so what are the factors which cause this? Are there any possible solutions that can be used to solve this? The reasons behind why boys do not achieve as well as girls in school. The objectives of this report are to discuss, to discover and investigate why there is gender gap also why boys lack behind girls. This report examines to discuss the causes of this gender gap in schools for girls and boys. The issues that will be discussed in this report are as follows: the history behind the gender gap in achievement in schools because boys were once doing better than girls. The reason for this was that girls had to stay home has housewives also girls had to gain more marks in 11 plus exams than boys. Another aspect that will be looked at are schools too feminised which m ay give an advantage to girls. Other ideas which will be argued are how the curriculum is implemented and how subjects are assessed in schools. Other factors that may affect boys achievement in schools are peer pressure from friends if they worked hard in school they may be stereotyped as a geek also learning styles may affect attainment. But does social class and ethnicity affect the achievement of children in schools. However there are subjects that favour boys than girls and vice a versa such as boys do better than girls in maths and science but on the other hand girls do better in English. This report will evaluate factors that can improve this gap by having single sex classes and single sex schools. The report will contrast the for and the against arguments of having single sex classes and single sex schools. Definitions of the word gender differences Literature review There has been a lot of work done on boys and girls achievement in schools: narrowing down the gap. In 1960 young boys were 21 times more likely to attend university than girls. It can be suggested that the changing world is having an impact on boys achievement in terms of boys attainment in schools and that of girls success in schools. It was suggested that the equal pay act and that of the sex discrimination act (1970) changed the emphases of education policy and that can be noted as a key period of history that changed the objectives of girls in terms of careers and attainment. Girls had to achieve higher marks in their 11 plus examination than boys. Elwood J et al (1998, p.5) states that 11 plus examination à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ children used to be selected for secondary schooling, were deliberately skewed so that girls had t achieve better results than boys. The period 1950-1960 found the reasons behind this was because boys matured later than girls which would not have been fair to l eave out boys from attending grammar schools. But in 1990 their was concern over boys achievement in schools. It has been suggested that in societies such as the UK the socialisation process as it operated at least up to the 1970s meant that many parents socialised their daughters to show dependence, obedience, conformity and domesticity whereas boys were encouraged to be dominant, competitive and self-reliant. Also when young children saw their parents acting out traditional gender roles many would perceive these roles as natural and inevitable leading girls and boys to imagine their futures as fulltime housewives and mothers and as fulltime paid employees respectively. In schools teachers praised girls for feminine qualities and boys for masculine qualities; boys and girls were encouraged to opt for traditional male and female subjects and then for traditional male and female careers. Furthermore in certain sections of the mass media [and especially perhaps in teenage magazines] girls were encouraged to recognize the all importance of finding Mr. Right and settling down to a life of blissf ul domesticity in their traditional housewife-mother roles. Cole (2006, p.26) suggests that even before children go to school their parents will treat a boy and girl very different. Even in society throughout history this has occurred. A lot of research has gone into this; your gender is an issue from the minute you are born. Automatically society will say how a girl will behave and how a boy will behave. If it is a boy, oh hes like that because hes a boy and boys always take longer to grasp it. Girls, even in the late 1960s were more likely than boys to gain 5 or more GCE Ordinary Level pass grades. From the 1960s to the 1980s the percentages of girls and boys gaining 5 or more GCE Ordinary Level pass grades gradually increased but the so-called gender gap in educational attainment increased especially once the GCSE was introduced primarily because girls have maintained their traditional higher attainment levels in Arts and Humanities subjects but also reduced [and in some years overturned] the traditional attainment gaps in favour of boys in Mathematics and Science subjects. The GCSE was introduced in 1988 and from then onwards the female- male gender difference in educational achievement at GCSE level widened as differences between the [ higher] female pass rates and the male pass rates in Arts and Humanities widened and females narrowed or sometimes reversed the traditional higher male pass rates in Mathematics and science subjects. It has been claimed that the relative improvement of female educational achievements can be explained partly by the nature of the new GCSE courses .This has been disputed, however, on the grounds that several factors have contributed to these trends. By the late 1980s females were more likely than males to gain two or more Advanced Level passes and during the course of the 1990s they also became more likely to gain 3 or more A level passes. Females also soon became more likely than males to gain A grades in almost all Advanced Level subjects Nevertheless gender differences in examination performance at Advanced level are smaller than at GCSE level. In 2007-2008 69.3% of girls and 60.1% of boys achieved 5 or more GCSE Grade A*-C passes; 51.3% of girls and 42.0% of boys achieved 5 or more GCSE Grade A*-C passes including English and Maths. The gender difference in examination success varies considerably from subject to subject. For example girls in 2007-2008 girls outperformed boys by 14% in English, 16% in Design and Technology, 9% in Modern Foreign Languages, 17% in Art and Design and 12 % in English Literature but by only 1% in Mathematics, 2% in Core Sciences, 1% in Chemistry and 2% in Classical Studies. Although the data are not presented here Girls are now more likely to gain A* and A grades in most but not all GCSE subjects. Other areas the research will focus on are schools too feminised, advantage for girls but disadvantage for boys. Hutchings (2002) states the phrase feminisation is used simply to refer to the fact that there are more female teachers than male, especially in the primary sector. (Biddulph, 1997 cited in Skelton et el, 2007) state that the current situation is often presented as one which is detrimental to the educational experiences and opportunities of boys with the implication that boys do better when taught by men teachers. (Skelton et el, 2007) suggest that Another use of the phrase feminisation of schools is in relation to the idea that the predominance of females has led to the delivery of the curriculum, assessment practices and the management and organisation of the classroom becoming more feminine in nature. Female teachers are more lenient on boys than male teachers also male teachers can be role models for pupils which will enable the child to be motivated to learn and succe ed in education. Findings have suggested that it is vital to keep the subjects taught in curriculum interesting for children to learn about in class. This may enable children to be motivated to learn and gets rid of the label of boringness of lessons. Jackson (2006, p.127) states that if students find the curriculum boring, it provides little incentive for them to counter the uncool to work discourse. Methods of assessment have been identified particularly frequently as a key factor in this bias against boys. An increased amount of assessed coursework has been suggested to explain boys doing less well at GCSE and A levels, with the argument being that boys do less well at coursework because of their preferred learning styles (Skelton et al, 2007). Girls do less well at sudden death exams (timed exams previously unseen by the candidate) which rely on last-minute revision and require self-confidence. This latter form of assessment has been argued to favour boys, and was the basis for O level exams (the exams that preceded GCSEs in Britain). Bleach, 1998, cited in Skelton et al, 2007 In fact, however, girls results were already improving before the GCSE assessment model was introduced. And further, Arnot et al. (1999) discuss how a reduction in the coursework component in public examinations in the 1990s did little to alter the pattern of gender achievement (Skelton et al, 2007). Another issue could be masculinity peer pressure from friends Jackson (2006, p.74) states that the uncool to work this statement is suggesting that if boys work hard at school they will not be cool. (Jackson, 2006, p.84) Those who seem to be most disadvantaged as a result of the discourse are those who attempt to balance academic work and popularity but can not manage to do both successfully. This is a powerful predictor in a lot of schools, this is seen as social status of pupils needs to be popular and be part of a group. A lot of pupils will feel being unpopular is not as good as anything else. Also it will lead to negative impact. Both girls and boys have to act as they are chilled, relaxed, laid back when it comes to the academic side of work. As the relative rate of female educational improvement increased it came to be argued that this might be explained to some extent by biological factors. Experiments investigating the brain activities of male and female babies suggested that differences in the structures of female and male brains respectively may mean that females have genetically determined linguistic advantages which would explain females especial facility with language based subjects. It was also suggested that girls earlier maturity means that they can concentrate more effectively and are better organised especially in relation to course work. This was considered to be a significant point because the relative improvement in female GCSE results was associated especially with the introduction of coursework-based assessments which had been absent from the GCE Ordinary Level examinations which the GCSE replaced. However in relation to these theories it should be noted that male-female differences in Advanced level lan guage examination results are small, that the relationships between physical and intellectual maturity are uncertain and that gender differences in examination results cannot be explained only by the presence or absence of coursework. Other factors that may affect attainment are different learning styles, both boys and girls learn differently, but we need to be careful we do not stereotype on gender. When looking at the gender debate it has been suggested by Coffield (2004) that consideration to learning styles is important when establishing the link as to why there is a gap between boys and girls due to peer pressure for the boys what their friends may think if they achieved well in school, the way boys are assessed in schools for instance boys do better in exams than coursework. Examples of these could be boys would prefer to learn kinaesthetically by doing things such as experiments or activities and girls would learn well visually by seeing. Interest in learning styles has grown rapidly in recent years and perceived differences in the learning styles of boys and girls are one of the most frequently expressed explanations for the gender gap in achievement. This argument is also based on the presumption that if boys are naturally different to girls because of their biological make-up, then it follows that they will have different approaches to learning (Noble and Bradford, 2000; Gurian, 2002). Studies have shown that the vast majority of boys and girls prioritise a teachers individual ability as a teacher, and their level of care for their students, rather than a teachers gender. Skelton et al (2009), Francis et al (2008). Boys to better in maths than girls research by Hargreaves et al into pupils stereotypical attitudes to mathematics and English has shown that stereotypes succeed among pupils, with most believing that maths is a boys subject where boys do better, and English a girls subject where girls do better. DfES (2007, p. 3) Boys outperform girls in Maths at Key Stage 2, and continue to outnumber girls at higher level maths. But there is a large gender gap favouring girls in English. On the other hand girls do better in English than boys On the other hand women do better on reading comprehension and vocabulary than men do. APA report state that some verbal tasks show substantial mean differences favouring females. Whitepaper on gender differences in achievement Social class and ethnicity according to Cole (2006, p.29) states that Gender is not the strongest predictor of attainment. Social class attainment gap at key stage 4 is three times as wide as gender gap. DfES (2007, p.3) Analysis of the attainment data shows that other factors or a combination of factors, such as ethnicity and social class, have a greater bearing on educational achievement than gender considered on its own. Gender differences in educational achievement are far smaller than social class differences in educational achievement. Students of both sexes who are eligible for free school meals are far less likely than students of both sexes ineligible to be successful at both levels of the education system. Some ethnic differences in educational achievement are also greater than gender differences in educational achievement. Statistics on the gender gap between boys and girls Attainment at each end of the distribution of grades also varies by gender. Girls are more likely than boys to gain an A* grade at GCSE. Boys are a little more likely to gain a G grade at GCSE or to gain no GCSEs at all. The largest gender differences (a female advantage of more than ten percentage points on those gaining an A*-C GCSE) are for the Humanities, the Arts and Languages. Smaller gender differences (a female advantage of five percentage points or less) tend to be in Science and Maths subjects. Some of these achievement patterns have been relatively stable over six decades of exam results, particularly in English Language and Literature, French, Art and Design and Religious Studies. There have been changing patterns over the years. In Maths, there has been a shift from a male advantage averaging 4 percentage points prior to 1991 to a slim female advantage of 1-2 percentage points in recent years. In Geography, there has be en a widening of the gap in girls favour, and in History, there has been variation but with girls now doing much better than boys. This research will explore possible solutions we can use to solve this gap such as single sex schools which may help girls to speak out. Times online (2004) Girls in mixed classrooms refrain from speaking up and answering questions. Another way of solving the gender gap is by having single sex classes in mixed schools so that teachers can meet different learning styles for boys. Research has shown that girls obtain better results in single sex schools in comparison to mixed schools Curtis (2009). Odone (2004) conversely, that boys do not want to study foreign languages or shine in English literature in case they are mocked as poofs. Garner (2008) Differences in how male and female brains work mean single-sex schooling will make a comeback leading head mistress in the Independent. However the disadvantages of sex schools Blair (2006) Girls schools feature highly in the league tables because they are highly selective, their children come from particular social backgrounds and they hav e excellent teachers. BBC News (2006) While both single-sex and co-education have passionate advocates, half a century of research has so far revealed no striking or consistent differences one way or the other. Odone (2004) Children, will inhabit a mixed society later, so let them start young, with mixed classes. Younger et al (2005, p.89) found that boys and girls may feel more at ease in single sex classes, feel more able to interact with learning and feel free to show interest in the lesson without inhibition. It was felt that there can be positive effects on achievement for boys in modern languages and girls in science and maths. (Dcfs (2007) Methodology The methods that will be used to gather research for this project will be as follows: the use of books to get information on issues affecting gender differences in achievement at schools and what theorist have already found around this agenda. The internet will be useful for this research project because you can research recent and up to date statistical information on the gender gap and get government published on this debate. Journals will be useful for the research project to collect recent data and changes in the debate around boys and girls achievement in schools and narrowing down the gap. These methods of researching are called secondary research. Secondary research is the use of material, which has been researched by someone else. The different research methods for secondary research are as follows: technology based research is to do with researching from the computer to get your information, which has a lot of benefits such as the internet provides online libraries; e-books, journals and encyclopaedias such as infed. The main electronic databases that will be used for this research are as follows education research complete, education online and SwetsWise. The key read that will be used will be based on gender differences and achievement in school also how the search found a number of journals, but some were irrelevant, to the research topic. Search engines help you through the mass of information on the internet two most popular search engines are Bing, google advanced search and google scholar also on the internet you can search for newspaper articles. However web sources may not always be reliable so researchers need to find out how accurate the information there are number of ways to assess the accuracy of the sites. According to Walliman and Buckler (2008, p.92) compare the data with other sources and is it biased many use the web to promote ideas. The reasons for choosing to do the research project as a desk study were as follows: to find out what has already been researched in this field and arguments that have already been produced around this agenda. However the reasons for not choosing the fieldwork approach method were because it will be time consuming and availability of schools to carry out the research is limited and difficult to get a place in schools to do observations. The advantages of the desk study approach are as follows; able to collect, understand and interpret data also to limit costs such as travelling costs. The disadvantages of desk study may be the availability of books from the library In contrast the advantages of the interview approach (structure and unstructured) advantages of structured interviews are time management can be controlled, results are simple to gather and the questions are securely set in advance. the disadvantages of structured interviews are there might be other questions to ask and you cant develop on questions. The advantages of unstructured interviews are there is a lot of time, you can develop questions and it is a relaxed method. Disadvantages of the interview approach are as follows: The disadvantages of unstructured interviews are the interview can simply be a chat, not all the participants are asked the same questions and only some of the questions are asked. Indirect observation is when a participant gets their information from viewing from far. Direct observation is when a participant obtains information by combining with the circumstances they are watching. Advantages of the observation approach (direct and indirect) the advantages of observations are actions can be seen in the normal surroundings and observations can both be direct or indirect. Disadvantages of the observation approach (direct and indirect) the disadvantages of observations are they are lengthy and not consistent. Qualitative vs. quantitative Analysis There was clear evidence that in the era of the 11+ pass marks were set higher for girls than for boys so as to prevent girls from taking a disproportionate share of Grammar School places. From the early 1950s until the late 1960s girls were less likely than boys to be entered for GCE Ordinary Level examinations. In any case in the 1950s and early 1960s many pupils left school at age 15 having taken no official national examinations. The candidate pass rate in GCE O Level examinations was higher for girls than for boys from the early 50s to the late 1960s so that despite the higher entry rates for males the percentages of male and female school leavers actually passing 5 or more GCE O levels were fairly similar although females did usually outperform males by 1-2% each year. This overall statistic masked the facts that girls outperformed boys by considerable margins in Arts and Humanities subjects and that boys usually outperformed girls but by smaller margins in Mathematics and Scie nce subjects. In order to analyse the relative educational improvement from the 1980s onwards we must distinguish between factors accelerating the rate of female improvement and factors restricting the rate of male improvement. Females and males educational achievements have improved but the rate of female improvement has been faster and this widened the female-male achievement gap especially at GCSE level. Remember, however, that gender, social class and ethnicity are interconnected. Girls are more successful than boys in all ethnic groups but middle class boys are still more educationally successful than working class girls in all ethnic groups. Gender differences in educational achievement are smaller than social class differences in educational achievement and some ethnic differences in educational achievement. Research has shown that Of the 71,286 girls who sat GCSEs in single-sex schools over the three-year period, on average all did better than predicted on the basis of their end of primary SATS results. By comparison, of the 647,942 who took exams in mixed-sex schools, 20% did worse than expected. This means that girls in single sex schools can be expected to do better in their school, in comparison to girls in mixed schools. Studies have shown that girls in mixed sex classes tend to refrain from speaking up and boys dont want to study English to avoid being mocked as poofs', therefore single sex schools would help to resolve this issue as they will remove this pressure between the genders and allow both boys and girls to participate freely. Also Single sex schools will benefit students as male and female brains work differently. Girls can relate to emotions more and are seen as caring and talkative they can sit and talk about emotions whereas boys are more likely to do practical things instead of talking of emotions, hence why boys fail in English. So perhaps, as this leading head mistress, quoted in the Independent suggests, single sex classes need to be implemented to meet the learning strategies of the different sexes. Mainly English and foreign languages is where I believe that pupils need a gender based curriculum as was suggested by the DFES (2007) report it remarks that of the core subjects, the gender gap is widest in English; overall, the differences in language and literacy skills are given as the main cause of the gender gap in attainment. It is suggested that there is around 10% children leaving education with 5 Cs and above girls since 1968 have been slowly achieving better than boys according to Dcfs report into gender. It is a step towards the well researched idea that genders learn differently therefore it is possible to suggest that gender specific learning amongst boys and girls will close the statistical gap of attainment. Although the dfes report suggest that is no substantial evidence to back this up I believe that children will benefit from this approach. Another issue that I found is that boys tend to do better on spatial skills; they find mathematics and science more interesting to learn about. But on the other hand girls to better on verbal, comprehension and vocabulary skills than boys do. This table shows the gap in 1989 was just 6% but 10yrs later it had increased to 10%. It is suggested by S. Ball (2008) that this gap is an overall statistic and not subject specific he suggests that in 2004 the deviations of this gap was just 1% and that in some subjects boys achieve better results than girls therefore it is not valid to say that all boys or all girls achieve less in GCSE levels Conclusions In conclusion doing this research project on boys and girls achievement in schools and narrowing down the gap. The research found that there is not as big as a gap as people thought. The main factors that affect boys achievement are peer pressure and schools too feminised. The research also found that single sex schools and classes do not make that much difference but it found that girls have more confidence to participate in class discussion. In conclusion, the history of the gender gap shows that the gender gap itself has always been present in education, but was hidden by the advantage given to boys in 1960s, and it was often harder for girls to progress into further education, since it was not expected of them, therefore affecting the gender gap in the sense that there were lower numbers of girls then boys progressing. Over the years boys have improved and so have girls, maintaining the gender gap but showing that boys are adapting to the changes and are working harder to keep up. The gender differences in boys and girls does show that they learn in different ways, and these differences are, now more then ever, taken into account in teaching methods, lesson planning and assessment methods, and there is evidence showing that Boys are fighting back at A levels, with their results improving more rapidly than girls (BBC, 2004),however, it is important to recognise that there are girls and boys who wont fit into these gendered patterns and therefore focus should still be placed on the individual and not the biologically predisposed expectations, (Phoenix, 2004, pg 34). We could also conclude that this improvement could be the first sign that boys are now realising they will have to fight to maintain their place in the workforce, as history shows women have been seen as servants to the state (Steedman, 1 985, cited in Arnot and Ghaill, 2006, pg 19). This oppression of women, like other cases where parts of society have been repressed (e.g. repression of the afro-Caribbean population), resulted in women fighting or rebelling for their place in society, which is not something the male population has had to do. Therefore acting as a source of motivation for women to make sure they are treated as equals and to progress in life, where as men have missed out on this and until recently, have lacked the motivation to fight for their place. Now men are in a place of competition with women and are now beginning to see that its not particularly clever to under-achieve (BBC, 2004).

homes Essay example -- essays research papers

Except for the fairly elaborate chieftains' houses, Greek dwellings remained simple through classical times. A passageway led from the street into an open court off which three or four rooms were reached, the whole being fairly small in scale. The Roman houses, as seen, for example, at Pompeii, also stood at the street's edge. Past a vestibule was an open space called the atrium, from which the sleeping rooms were reached; a colonnaded garden often stood in back. In ancient Rome most people lived in the equivalent of apartment houses, three to five stories high, with apartments ranging from three to six rooms; some were like tenements, others were elaborate. At ground level were rows of small shops. The rich had huge villas outside the cities that were composed of living quarters and pleasure pavilions. IV. Houses of Medieval EuropePrint section This comparative sophistication in housing disappeared during the so-called Dark Ages in Europe. Although castles and primitive manors housed many people, most of the remaining population were packed into simple, unsanitary dwellings huddled within the walls of small cities and towns. The countryside was unsafe, and agriculture and population both declined; the prosperous farms of classical antiquity disappeared. Slowly, after AD1000, conditions improved, first around the great monasteries and then in the expanding cities. The rise of a prosperous mercantile class resulted in the construction of large town houses and in due time country manors. Comparatively peaceful conditions brought some improvement in housing for farm serfs, but the living conditions of the poor town-dweller continued, on the whole, to be miserable. By the end of the Middle Ages the concept of the palace had evolved from the idea of the grand town house. These palaces were elaborate dwellings for ranking ecclesia stics, merchant princes, or ruling families; they might occupy a whole block and contain, in addition to ceremonial and private apartments, quarters for large numbers of retainers and hangers-on. V. From the Renaissance to the 19th CenturyPrint section The palace was perfected during the Renaissance and remains one of architecture's most enduring images, a dignified, large-scale city element that has been adapted and repeated ever since. Palaces were first built in Florence, Italy, and then throughout the Western world. In France... ...ouses that broke with historical architectural styles were slow to be accepted. As early as 1889 the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright built a house embodying new concepts of spatial flow from one room to another. He and others, both in Europe and in the United States, soon moved toward a domestic architectural style of metric forms and simplified surfaces largely free of decoration. Contemporary changes in painting and sculpture were allied to this movement, and by the 1920s modern architecture, though by no means universally accepted, had arrived. Glass, steel, and concrete reinforced with steel gave architects many new design options, and by the mid-20th century the modern house was commonplace. Glass boxes, freely curving styles, and stark, austere geometric forms were all possible; but at the same time traditional styles persisted, and in the U.S. many homeowners found a more or less standard, one-floor, two- or three-bedroom ranch house satisfactory. VIII. Houses of the Far EastPrint section House types in India vary greatly according to region, climate, and local tradition. The villages have courtyard houses as well as simple, single-volume dwellings; in the cities,

The Dark Evil of Racism :: essays research papers

It is much easier to confront the racism of the 1960s than the racial and economic injustices of today. While I'm happy that racist vigilantes such as Edgar Ray Killen have finally been called upon to pay for their crimes, we have work to do in the here and now. Killen's conviction is one of several historical reckonings. In 1994, Byron de la Beckwith was convicted of murdering civil-rights leader Medgar Evers in 1963. Then, just last year, the FBI reopened the 1955 Emmett Till case after finding that as many as 10 more people may have been involved in his abduction and murder. And now Killen will likely go to prison for the rest of his life for his part in the brutal 1964 murders of civil-rights activists Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman and James Chaney. These murder cases stayed unsolved for decades, and their resolution may give some sense of closure to the long-suffering families of the victims. But these triumphs are largely symbolic. By congratulating ourselves too much for them, we risk neglecting the challenges of the present. ''There's justice for all in Mississippi,'' state Attorney General James Hood said after the Killen conviction. But the reality on the ground belies Hood's rosy scenario. The lives of black Mississippians, 41 years after the civil-rights murders of 1964, are still mired in poverty and inequality. Yes, there are black elected officials now, but the economic prospects for black people -- and many whites -- is grim. The state suffers one of the nation's highest illiteracy rates. More than 38 percent of the state's black families live in poverty, in contrast to 14 percent of whites, according to the Kaiser Foundation. This doesn't sound like justice to me. Killen and his ilk carried out their crimes under white hoods and the darkness of night.

One Child Policy Should Be Abolished

One child policy has been in effect in China for more than thirty years. However, during the recent several years, the controversy of whether the government should abolish the one child policy has been debated widely among government officials as well as ordinary people. It is a significant issue because it involves a lot of essential social problems and moral principles. There have been various opinions concerning this issue. This essay will consider arguments for abolishing the one child policy and point out the problems and consequences of keeping the policy in effect. When the one child policy was advanced, it had been argued that one child policy would benefit the country as well as its people (Qing, 1995). Its undeniable that the one child policy has shown its great effect on alleviating the population pressure. However, as the society develops, more and more inharmonious social problems are coming about because of the one child policy, among which the biggest problem is the unbalanced population. By 2020, there will be about 40 million Chinese men unable to marry, because too few girls will have been born. Sociologists say that could trigger aggressive behavior among frustrated bachelors, including kidnapping and trafficking in women. † (VOA, 2006). Moreover, the one child policy is also exacerbating China's aging population problem, whose severe consequences will be further explained in the following statement. It is the contention that china's one child policy helps eradicate poverty (idebate. org). This opinion goes on to assert that by controlling china’s population with one child policy, there will be more resources distributed to every individual, thus the society will be wealthier and poverty will be eliminated. In fact, it is on the contrary that after china’s population has been massively reduced, the one child policy has started doing harm to the economy. The unusually rapid fertility decline in China has produced a rapidly aging population—one that is expected to become disproportionately older well into this century. What’s worse, â€Å"By 2025, the aging level among urban Chinese will reach 20 percent, a level found today only in Japan and Italy. † (idebate. org) As a result, there are and there will be fewer and fewer available labors contribute to China’s economical development. In addition, other social problems related to aging population such as the burden on the social welfare system and medical insurance system are becoming more and more severe. Above all, the one child policy violates basic human right. The policy has been criticized by human rights advocacy groups and Western religious advocacy groups who consider it contrary to the human rights of reproduction. Many governments, including the United State government, argue that the policy violates a right to â€Å"found a family†, which is protected under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (UDHR, 1948) Indeed, forcing every married couple to have only one child is morally unreasonable. Moreover, it is every couple themselves, not the government, that have the right to choose how many children they are going to have. Thus, although the one child policy’s intention is to create a better society for people, it has already done harm to people’s basic human rights. In conclusion, even though the one child policy has done a good job before on controlling China’s population, it has been proved out-of-date and should be abolished, at least changed, nowadays. Otherwise, we will still be suffering from the economical burdens, aging population problem, human rights violation, etc, due to the one child policy.

Admission Essay for Medical School

Since my childhood, I have been dreaming to be a doctor. I believe that a doctor has a noble job because it extends a helping hand to those people who are in need; especially the sick one. Doctors are believed as the living heroes because they are always on duty to lend services for the ill people.Every time I can see people who are seriously ill, suffering from pain and look hopeless my heart really goes out with them. I constantly remind myself that serving them is such a noble profession. The cries and pains of the patients’ eyes that I see every time I visit a hospital really register on my mind and when I remember them, it pushes me to pursue my dream and that is to be a doctor.Moreover, whenever my mom and grandparents are sick, I am really the one, who attends to them and if there are chances to render services in the civic works, I also volunteer.The three people who brought impact to my life are my grandmother, my bestfriend and my mom. Among these three, it is my mom who really brought change and has really affected my life. Well, my grandmother encourages me to have difference in this world by serving people who are in need. I have witnessed how my grandma cares my grandfather when he is seriously ill.I can really see the love and concern; thus, she is constantly reminding me that if I serve people, it should be done in love. That line really inculcates in my mind.   On the other hand, my bestfriend really motivates me to believe that I can do the things which I thought I can’t do; like having a thought that going to a medical school is impossible because I know the qualifications are really high but she let me believe and realize that I have a heart in serving people.Moreover, it is really my mom who has a great impact and influence to me why I want to pursue this career. As I look back my childhood days, I can’t help myself to laugh with those nonsense choices that I have made. Those memories are still fresh in my mind and I can’t remember any incident which I don’t pout every time the day of Monday is coming up, the first day of school.   Monday up to Friday is my â€Å"terrible† days of my life when I am still a child.I need to wake up early so that I will not be late for school and be able to catch the school bus. I need to make many assignments, unending assignments for every subject and I really find them a waste of time. I can still remember how my mom wakes me up by saying â€Å"honey, you have to wake up now†¦You will be late for school.† It is my mom who really pushes me to go to school.I try to ask my mom why I need to go to school when I can learn many things by playing with my friends and watching television. But my mom would answer me that it is different if I am in school because I can learn how to read and write.She also adds that good education is the only wealth that they can leave, with my dad, to me that can’t be stolen by anybody and if I rea lly dream to be a doctor, I should also do my part. I attempt to reason out but then, I am just a loser because my mom would not listen to my sentiments and she just continually sends me to school.She tries to encourage me a lot in order to make me enthusiastic with my studies but then, in my own thinking, going to school is just irrelevant and boring, totally boring! But in a long run, I discover that going to school is a lot of fun especially when my Science teacher starts to discuss about the parts of human beings, its systems and functions.It makes me wonder how these parts function. From that moment, I start liking going to school. In addition, there is one incident that my mom gets sick. I am so worried but when I remember what my Science teacher teaches us on how to take care the sick people, I am relieved.The edge that sets me apart from others who apply to Xavier University school of Medicine, Bonaire is that I am a very patient individual and have the passion to serve othe rs; thus, doing extra mile for the benefits of the many.I am very dedicated and serious to my studies and always ready to learn new things. I am a type of student who does not easily give up when the going gets tough but continues to pursue until I will know it. Furthermore, I am also a graduate of Dentistry which is a good ground for my medical studies.